Hoʻoholo 'ana o nā'ātoma a me nā lātoma. Definition o ka'Ātoma a hiki i 1932

E hoʻomaka ana, mai ka wā kahiko i ka waena o ka 18th kenekulia, 'epekema i Kīwala'ō ma lalo o ka manaʻo i ke'Ātoma - he huna o ka mea i ole e mokuahana hiki. English nä känaka 'epekema a me ka naturalist, a me D. HaleakaLā i ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma like me ka huna uuku loa o ka Nine Inch hehee ai. MV Lomonosov ma kona'ātoma a hakakino ana ua hiki ke haawi aku i ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma a me ka lātoma. He Ua hoomaopopoia e ka lātoma, a kapa aku la ia "corpuscles", haku o "hehee wale" - nā'ātoma - a eia i loko o ia a eia ka noi.

D. I. Mendeleev manaoio i keia subunit waiwai i e mai i ka mea ao nei, hoopaa mai ai i kona waiwai a pau wale ina mea mea ole malalo i mahele. Ma keia 'atikala, ke hoakaka i ka mea like me ka microcosm o ka'Ātoma, a me ka hoʻopaʻa haʻawina kona waiwai.

Kāʻei kua o ka pähola 'ana o'ātoma' ole

Ma ka 19th kenekulia, ka mea, ua hoʻomano 'ike e like me ka hoakaka ana ma ka indivisibility o ka'Ātoma. Ka hapanui o kānakaʻepekema i manaoio aku i ka (particles) o kekahi Nine Inch hehee ai ma lalo o kekahi pilikia,ʻaʻole hiki ke iho i loko o nā'ātoma o nā kumu mua. Kēia mau manaʻo a pau i ke kumu ma i i ka nānā 'ana i ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma a hiki i 1932. Ma ka hopena o 19th kenekulia ma ka 'epekema i ua i kumu discoveries i hoʻololi i kēia nānaina. Mua o nā mea a pau, i ka 1897 o ka Pelekania physicist J. J. Thomson i ike ai i ka huina'ine. Keia mea ua fundamentally hoʻololiʻepekema 'manaʻo e pili ana i indivisible hapa o ka Nine Inch hehee ai.

Pehea e hooiaio i ka'Ātoma luna '' ole

E like ma mua o ka loaʻa o ka huina'ine , nä känaka 'epekema ua hoʻoholo likeʻae i na nā'ātoma i ole kauoha. A laila, ka mea i loaʻa i ka mea, ke puana ike okoa electrons mai kekahi makemake Nine Inch hehee ai. Ka mea, hiki ke loaʻa i loko o ka lapalapa ahi, ka mea, i nā moku halihali mokulele o ka uila papa, e hookuu aku oia i waiwai iloko o m-Ray pāhawewe.

Akā, inā na electrons i kekahi hapa o nā mea a pau me ka hoʻokoe ', a negatively hoopiiia nā'ātoma, penei, ma ka'Ātoma loaʻa nō kekahi (particles) e ua ike hoi, e i ka maikaʻi malama, i ole ia nā'ātoma makemake ole e uila'ākilikai. E kōkua unravel i ka 'ole o ka'Ātoma i kōkua i ka physical kŰia like radioactivity. Ua haawi aku la i ka pololei ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma i loko o ke kālaikūlohea, a laila kemika.

Kaʻike makaʻole kukuna

Palani physicist A. Becquerel i ka mea mua, e wehewehe i ka kŰia o ka ea puka o nā'ātoma o kekahi Nine Inch hehee wale, visuallyʻike makaʻole kukuna. Ka mea, ionize ka lewa hele ma ka mea, ma o na la blackening o kiʻi papa. Hope, i ka Curies a me Rutherford ike i radioactive waiwai i lilo iho i loko o nā'ātoma o nā Nine Inch oihana mua (e like me uranium - neptunium).

Radioactive pāhawewe mea nonuniform ma ka haku mele 'ana., Alpha (particles), Hoʻokolohua (particles), gamma kukuna. Pela, ke kŰia o ka radioactivity ho'āʻo ai i ka papa'āweʻaweʻa kemika papa aina o ka oihana mua (particles) i ka luna '' ole. Keia mea, kena ae la i ka loli i hiki i ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma. He aha (particles) mea he'Ātoma, i haawiia e Rutherford loaa houʻepekema kūʻiʻo? Ke pane i keia ninau i ka i manaoia haumāna nukelea kumu hoʻohālike o ka'Ātoma, e like me a puni ka ikaika-hoopiiia nucleus electrons neʻe mai.

ʻokoʻa Rutherford kükohu

I ka kumumanaʻo o ka nä känaka 'epekema, hoʻowahāwahā kona poʻokela ano, hiki ole objectively hoakaka i ka'Ātoma. Kona mau mea, ua ulu, ua ku i ke kumu kanawai o thermodynamics, e like me a pau o na electrons orbiting na nuclei lilo aku i ko lakou ikehu, a, e like me ka mea i ia, kokoke ina paha he i, e hāʻule ma luna ona hope. Atom ma keia hihia luku. Kēia mea nae i ka hihia, mai na Nine Inch a me (particles) mai a lakou i hana ai, nei ma ke ano maoli no ka lōʻihi manawa. Inexplicably'Ātoma ua hoʻoholo ma muli o ka pähola 'o Rutherford, e like me ka kŰia ka wā i hele aku anal na mea waiwai ma ka diffraction papa manamana ia ia lŘlŘ. Ma hope o'ātoma spectra i hanaʻia i ka mea ia manawa i ka laina shape. Kēia o onei me ka Rutherford ho o ka'Ātoma, e like me a ka pae makemake i ia e ana. E like me ka manaÿo o quantum mechanics, electrons makana i loko o ka nucleus e i wehewehe aku i wahi mea e like me ka ka palapala o ka huina'ine ao.

Ka hapa nui o kona pa apŘ i loko o ka kekahi locus o ka lewa a puni ka nucleus, a ua manaoia e ia i ka wahi o ka huna i ka haawiia manawa. No hoi, ka mea i loaʻa i ka'Ātoma, e hoonohonoho electrons ma ka papa. Ka helu o nā papa hiki ke nānā 'ia e ike ana i ka helu o ka wā ma i ka hehee ai i loko o ka papa'āweʻaweʻa kemika D. I. Mendeleeva System. No ka laʻana, ka mea phosphorus'Ātoma he 15 electrons, a he ekolu ikehu pae. Ke anakahi, a hoʻoholo i ka helu o ka ikehu pae ua kapaia ke poʻo kumu a mea quantum helu.

Ua Ua hoʻokūpaʻa experimentally i ka ikehu pae o electrons, Aia hea ka mea me ka Kora naʻEsau, i ka mea haahaa ikehu. Kēlā me kēia ikehu iwi ua maheleia i iiaciiie-pae, a me ka mea, ma ka huli, ma na orbitals. Electrons i ke aupuni 'ma kekahi mau orbitals i ka like palapala ao (s, p, n, f).

Ma muli o ka keia, ka mea, penei i ke kinona o ka huina'ine ao hiki ole e ākeʻakeʻa kumu. Ua ua pololei paa e like me ka orbital quantum helu. E hui pū i ka moku'āina o ka huina'ine a hiki i ka particulate ua i nānā 'ia e nā Hawaiʻi -ʻume mākenēki, a milo quantum loa. Ka mua ua ma muli o ka Schrodinger helu kaulike a me characterizes ka māhele kohoʻia o ka huina'ine ao ma luna o ka kumu o ka ekolu-dimensionality o ko mākou honua. Ka lua o anakahi - i ka helu o ka milo lākou ma luna o ka mea e hoʻoholo i ka huina'ine ka kuapo puni kona iho (axis) a loan-clockwise.

I ka loaʻa mai o ka neutron

Ma ka hana o D. Chadwick, paʻa ihola ia i ka 1932, ka mea i haawiia mai he hou ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma ma ka kemika a me ke kālaikūlohea. I kā lākouʻepekema ho okolohuaʻo ia i ho'āʻo i loko o ka cleavage ia lŘlŘ polonium pāhawewe, kena ae la ia e na (particles) loaa ole ka uku ole, i ka nuipa a 1,008665. A hou kula haʻahaʻaa huna i ka inoa o ka neutron. Aikane, a me ka haʻawina o kona waiwai aeia ka Sovietʻepekema V. Gapon a Ivanenko e ho okumu i ka hou pähola 'ana o ka' ole o ka'ātoma nucleus, na protons a me neutrons.

E like me ka mea hou kumumanaʻo, i maopopo ai i ka waiwai i ke kēia'Ātoma hana i ka mall pa alima o ka Nine Inch hehee ai, oia no ka Kora naʻEsau na protons, neutrons a me electrons neʻe a puni ia. I ka helu o ka maikaʻi (particles) i loko o ka nucleus ka manawa like i ka ordinal helu o ka Nine Inch hehee ai i loko o ka papa'āweʻaweʻa kemika nenoaiu.

Hope Kumu Zhdanov i loko o kona mau ho okolohua hookupaa iho la ia ia ma lalo o ka aoao o ka paʻakikī cosmic pāhawewe, e Wāwahi'ātoma nuclei i protons a me neutrons. Eia hou, ka mea, ua hoao aku au ia i na koa e hoʻopaʻa nei i kēia mau kula haʻahaʻa (particles) i loko o ka nucleus, ia mea paʻakikī loa ikehu-mālama nui. Ka mea hana ma luna loa pōkole mamao (no ka mea o ka 10 ^-23 knm), kapaʻia nukelea. E like me ka olelo mua, e MV Lomonosov ua hiki ke haawi aku i ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma, a me ka lātoma ma luna o ke kumu o ka 'epekema kūʻiʻo ike ia ia.

Currently ike noonoo i ka kēia ho:'Ātoma ninoieo o ka nucleus a me electrons neʻe puni ia i loko o ka pololei hoakaka alanui - orbitals. Electrons i ka mea ia manawa ho'āʻo i ka waiwai o nā na (particles) a me ka ale, ia mea, i ke pālua ano. Ke nucleus o ka'Ātoma ua kia aneane e pau kona nuipa a. Ua ninoieo ec protons a me neutrons pili me ka nukelea koa.

Ina he mea hiki, e kaupaona'Ātoma

Ua huli mai i kēlā me kēia'Ātoma ka nuipa a. No ka laʻana, ka mea, o ka hydrogen 1,67h10 ^-24 Ua hiki paʻakikī i ka noonoo ana i ka poe liilii, i kēia nui. No ka huli ana i ke kaumaha o ka mea, mai e hoʻohana i ka unahi, a me ka oscillator, i mea he o carbon nanotube. No ka ho omaulia i ke kaumaha o ka'Ātoma, a me ka lātoma oi pono nui o ka pili kaumaha. Ua hōʻike mai ana i na manawa he nui i ke kaupaona ana o ke lātoma a he Hulu Atom oi ma mua o 1/12 o ka kalapona'Ātoma, i mea 1,66h10 ^-27 kg. Pili'ātoma nā paʻi hua i haawi mai ai i loko o ka papa'āweʻaweʻa kemika papaʻaina o Nine Inch hehee wale, a me ka mea, i ole Ana.

ʻepekema, ua maopopo nö iä ia i ka'ātoma kaumaha o ka Nine Inch hehee ai - o ka awelika nui helu o isotopes. Eia kahi mea akaka, ma ke ano o kekahi pa alima o ka Nine Inch hehee ai ke i kekahi mau nā paʻi hua. Pela ka 'āhewa' ana o nā nuclei o ia mall huna ia.

ʻepekema, ua loaʻa i nā isotopes oko i loko o ka helu ana o neutrons ma ka nucleus a me nuclei kauoha aku'ālike ia. No ka laʻana, he chlorine'Ātoma, me ka nui 35 na 18 neutrons a me 17 protons, a me ka nui o ka 37 - 20 protons a me 17 neutrons. He nui Nine Inch oihana mua i nā mea huihuina o isotopes. No kekahi laʻana, na mea waiwai e like me potasiuma, argon, oxygen ma na loko o kona haku mele 'ana nā'ātoma ia ho 3ʻokoʻa nā kālaiōewe.

Paa o ka atomicity

Ua loaʻa paha kekahi mau ano oiaio. E hoomanao i ka mea i manaoia ma keia manawa i loko o kemika. Inā na nā'ātoma o ka Nine Inch hehee ai hiki ma ka liʻiliʻi loa momentarily nei ma ka hoʻokaʻawale, aole ia e mālama i ka lilo hou luna '(particles) - nā lātoma, laila, ke olelo aku nei au i ia mau waiwai i ka'ātoma' ole. No ka laʻana, nunui-kahua chlorination naoh o methane. Ua Ua hoʻomano hoʻohana 'ia i loko o ke aloha kemikala kemika no ka nui halogen nā mea loaʻa: dichloromethane, kalapona tetrachloride. Ua Ua Wāwahi chlorine nā lātoma i nā'ātoma ua kiʻekiʻe reactivity. Ka mea, luku sigma paa ana i loko o ka methane lātoma, ina he kaula hakahaka naoh.

Kekahi laʻana o ka Nine Inch kaʻina me ka nui i loko o ka hana - ka hoʻohana o ka hydrogen peroxide like me ka disinfectant a me ka loloʻa hope paha. Hoʻoholo 'ana o'ātoma o oxygen like me ka cleavage huahana o ka hydrogen peroxide ia lŘlŘ i loko o nā na keena ola (ma ka'ūhū catalase), a ma ke keʻena hoʻokolohua. 'ātoma oxygen ma qualitatively ka manao ana o kona kiʻekiʻe antioxidant waiwai a me kā lākou hana, e luku pathogenic konohiki: koʻohune, fungi a me kā lākou mau spores.

Pehea ka nukelea wahī

Mākou i mua i loaʻa i ka mall pa alima o ka Nine Inch hehee ai i ka luna '' ole. A puni ka ikaika-hoopiiia nucleus (particles) revolve io electrons. Ka Nobel uku Niels Bohr, ma muli o quantum pähola 'o ka malamalama, i hana mai i kekahi e ao ana, ai ka characterization a me ka' ike o nā'ātoma e like penei: electrons neʻe maila a puni ka nucleus wale i kekahi paa ala i loko o keia hihia e ole pāhawewe hou ikehu. Bohr, ua hōʻike kānakaʻepekema i ka (particles) o ka microworld, i nā nā'ātoma a me nā lātoma mai i hoolohe ole ai i ke kānāwai henua pololei no kino nui - mea macrocosm.

Ka 'ole o ka huina'ine leho o particulates i ua? Anoee ma palapala ma quantum ke kālaikūlohea epekema e like me Hund, Pauli Klechkovskii. No ka mea, la ia mea i na electrons e ka rotational noi a puni ka nucleus mea ole chaotic, akā, ma luna o kekahi mau anaina a kuamoʻo. Pauli loaʻa i loko o ka hookahi ikehu kiʻekiʻe ma kela a me keia o kona orbitals mau, p, n, [illegible] ma ka lolouila aeee i e ole oi aku mau negatively kaki (particles) o ke alo milo lākou waiwai + ½ a - ½.

wehewehe Hund ka rula ana, e hoʻopiha huina'ine orbitals me ka ia ikehu pae.

Aufbau rula, i kapaʻia ka rula N + l, wehewehe pehea piha orbitals multielectron nā'ātoma (oihana mua 5, 6, 7 pōʻaiapuni). A pau o ka mea ma luna o regularities i mālama ai i kaʻimi naʻauao kumu o Nine Inch hehee wale ho okumu ia ma Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

'okesaside degere

He He kumu manaʻo i loko o kemika, a wehewehe i ka moku'āina o ka'Ātoma i loko o ka lātoma. ʻO kēia ka wehewehena o ka degere o'okesaside o na nā'ātoma Ua like penei: ka uku ole ua hoʻoponopono nā'ātoma i loko o ka lātoma, a he pōpilikia ma muli o ka manaÿo i ka lātoma i wale i ka ionic haku mele 'ana.

Ke'okesaside hiki ke kāheaʻia ma ka helu a me ka fractional helu, he 'oluʻolu, io' ole 'Aʻohe nā loina. Ma ka hapanui o nā'ātoma o Nine Inch oihana mua i kekahi mau'okesaside Hawaii. No ka laʻana, naikokene mea -3, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5. Akā, e like me ka hehee ai, e like me fluorine, ma nā mea a pau o ka hui i wale kekahi'okesaside moku'āina like me -1. Inā ka mea, ua hōʻike mai iā ia i ka mea waiwai, kona'okesaside moku'āina o 'Aʻohe. Kēia Nine Inch mea pono e hana ai no ka Mea Maluna o ka waiwai a me ka wehewehe i ko lakou mau waiwai. Ma ka hapanui o na hihia, ka'okesaside degere o ka kemika hoʻohana i kūkulu i nā helu kaulike redox reactions.

Nā waiwai o nā'ātoma

Mahalo i nā discoveries o quantum ke kālaikūlohea, ka laekahi ka wehewehena o ka'Ātoma, i ua muli ma ka kumumanaʻo Ivanenko a me Gapon E, inā ma ka mea, peneiʻepekema kūʻiʻo. Ka 'ole o ka'ātoma nucleus ua ole hoʻololi i ka Nine Inch reactions. Ka loli e loli wale na wahi huina'ine orbitals. Lākou 'ole hiki ke wahi i ka hailona o ke kino a me ka Nine Inch waiwai o ka waiwai. Inā ka huina'ine koe he wahi ka Astronomical, a puka mai ia orbital me ka oi aku ikehu ia'Ātoma ua kapaia e inu nei.

It E e hoʻomaopopo i ka electrons hiki ole ia i ka manawa lōʻihi ma luna o kēia mau ole-kāna mau 'ōlelo orbitals. Kona hoi ana i kona wahi ka Astronomical, ka huina'ine kī ana i ka quantum o ka ikehu. Ka like ana o ia mau 'ano o ka mall huahelu o Nine Inch nā kumumea like huina'ineʻo Solomona, electronegativity, ionization ikehu, ua' ae 'epekema ole wale e hoakaka i ka'Ātoma like ka nui huna microcosm, akā, i ae ia lakou, e wehewehe ana i ka hiki o nā'ātoma, e hana i ka hale lio, a energetically hou ano hakakino moku'āina o ka mea, he hiki no o e pili ana i kekahi 'ano o ka pilina paʻa Nine Inch paa: ionic, covalent-Polar a me ka apolar, mau pou-acceptor (me covalent ka ponaʻana ioeo) a me ka m etallicheskoy. Ka hope e hoʻoholo i ka mea nui kino ai, a Nine Inch waiwai o ka mea hiki ke hooheheeia.

Ua Ua hoʻokūpaʻa experimentally i ka nui o ka'Ātoma ke oko a. A pau e hilinaʻi ana ma ka lātoma i loko i ka mea, ua komo. Ma X-Ray diffraction Ka Ikepili ke ho omaulia i ka mamao ma waena o nā'ātoma i loko o ka Nine Inch hui, e like me aʻo kahahńnai mall hehee ai pa alima. Kuleana kumu hoohalike o ka loli o ke Radii o na nā'ātoma na i loko o ka manawa a me ka pae o Nine Inch hehee wale, he mea hiki ke kilokilo i ko lakou kino a me ka Nine Inch waiwai. No ka laʻana, i ka manawa me ka mahuahua'ātoma nucleus kauoha aku lākou Radii emi ( "mīkini'opihia'Ātoma"), a nolaila, hoonawaliwali i ka mea hao waiwai o ka hui, a me ka nonmetallic listen.

Penei, ka ike o ka 'ole o ka'Ātoma hiki pololei ho oholo i ka kino ai a me ka Nine Inch waiwai o nā kumu mua i komo i loko o ka papa'āweʻaweʻa kemika nenoaiu o ka oihana mua.